IELTS Academic Reading Test 2

When people consider today how indispensable the Internet is, they often overlook that without electricity, it would not function. Living without the Internet would be a significant inconvenience today, but without electricity, life as we know it would collapse. Since we started using electricity in the mid-nineteenth century, we have worked on ways to move and store it easily and efficiently and one of the most common ways of storing electricity has been the battery. A battery does not actually store electricity. A battery, which is actually an electric cell, is a device that produces electricity from a chemical reaction. The story of the battery is one of people trying to create different compounds to produce an electric current. The two goals in improving batteries have always been to create ones that can produce an electric current for a long time and to make them smaller and smaller.

Alessandro Volta is credited with creating in 1800 the first battery and the first practical method of generating electricity. Luigi Galvani, another Italian scientist and contemporary of Volta, almost made the discovery, but misinterpreted his research results. Using a frog's leg in an experiment, Galvani concluded that the electric current was 'animal electricity' and did not come from the apparatus he had set up. Volta's battery was made by piling up layers of silver and paper or cloth, soaked in salt, and zinc. These layers were assembled, without paper or cloth between the zinc and silver, until the current was created.

Volta's battery was not good for delivering currents for any significant duration. This restriction was overcome in the Daniell Cell in 1820. Using different chemicals, John Daniell used a copper pot, copper sulphate, sulphuric acid and mercury to produce his electric current. Although we now know better than to put mercury into batteries, this battery, which produced about 1.1 volts, was used to power telegraphs, telephones, and even to ring doorbells in homes for over 100 years.

Although many other chemical combinations were used in batteries over the years, the lead acid battery is one that stands out. First made in 1859 and further improved in 1881, this design even now forms the basis of the modern lead acid battery found in cars.

One very common battery used today is the lithium-ion battery, which was developed by the United States' Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) as part of their efforts during the Cold War. The idea was to create a power source that could provide a long-duration, high-density energy supply in a small package. In the early 1960s, both the private and public sectors were experimenting with creating batteries using lithium, but the breakthrough came by adding the ion into the equation. Not long after its invention, the CIA shared the lithium-ion battery concept with the public and a company developed the first patent for commercial use in 1968. Used for a variety of different applications, the first lithium-ion battery was a game-changer in the medical industry, where it powers heart pacemakers.

Today, the lithium-ion battery is the most common type of battery used in pacemakers, because of its reliability and long life. Most lithium-ion batteries can last 10 years or longer in a cardiac pacemaker. As the battery nears the end of its life, the voltage begins to decrease. Designers can then include an indicator so the doctor knows a new battery is needed before it completely discharges. Lithium-ion batteries can also be used for other medical devices like neurostimulators and insulin pumps.

Whilst people consider the mid-nineteenth century to have been when civilization started using electricity, there has been a discovery of what could be a battery that indicates electricity was used long ago. The Parthian Battery, found on a railway site in 1936 and dating back 2,000 years, comprised a clay jar filled with vinegar solution, an iron rod, and copper wire. Tests show it could produce about 2 volts of electricity. It was not used as we use batteries today but may have been for electroplating or scroll storage.

Although battery research is proceeding at a steady pace, with an average annual gain in capacity of six per cent, scientists hope for a battery that can last even longer and be lighter and smaller. One new idea is a home battery: size would not be an issue, but it must have huge capacity and long life beyond anything yet experienced.

Questions 1–5

• Battery Notes Volta's Battery Invented in 1800 • Beat Galvani, who erred with his ___ • Used silver, paper or cloth, salt and zinc in • Not good for long Daniell's Battery • Made using different chemicals • Used • Produced just over 1 volt; used ~100 years Lead Acid Battery First made 1859 • Still used in today

Questions 6–10

• 6 The lithium-ion battery was invented as part of the United States' contribution to the ___ 7 The that made lithium-ion batteries possible was adding the ion. 8 A for commercial use was only possible when the CIA shared its work. 9 It is used in pacemakers for its and long life. 10 Designers included an to signal battery replacement.

Questions 11–13

• Archaeologists discovered the Parthian Battery, which was a filled with vinegar solution. Inside this jar was an , around which was wrapped a , producing about 2 volts of electricity.

It is generally acknowledged that reading is an important part of a child's learning process. Reading is a way for children to make connections between what they already know and what they see around them. These connections help children understand the world they are in, and, through books, children are exposed to characters and cultures that they may not otherwise interact with in real life.

A recent debate has examined what kinds of reading are best for children and whether any type of reading is beneficial. Many children are attracted to one genre or type of book, or they may have a favourite author that they like to read time and time again. Even though children may enjoy reading a single type of literature, they can be gently introduced to other genres. 'Gently' is important, because parents or teachers do not want to push too hard and run the risk of turning the child off reading. So, why is it important for children to read a variety of books and stories? Primary school teacher, Carol Anderson explains that there are several good reasons. "The exposure to different authors and genres of books can give your child insight into other societies, worldwide locations, and new vocabulary." Child-specific genres also provide a key link from the present to the past. Anderson again explains. "These genres are often stories that are passed down from generation to generation and they can be fascinating. Folk tales, fairy tales, fables, legends and myths, while retaining much of their original flavour and content, have to evolve in subtle ways to remain meaningful in different eras. They are a great starting point to introduce children to the concept of a story and to introduce them to different types of stories or genres."

But is all reading good? There is so much written that is done so badly and with questionable content. But if those are the only books a reluctant reader will pick up, do their drawbacks outweigh the benefit of having the student finally turning pages? "I think you should be glad they're reading anything at all," says Patricia Edwards, distinguished professor of language and literacy at Michigan State University. In her area of specialisation of creating home reading environments for families, she has become accustomed to the reality that there are often not typically strong reading role models for students at the end of the day. "A lot of parents don't have reading as a tradition and there aren't any books they would suggest their children read. So if a student gravitates toward a book, even if it's not a classic from the literary canon, that shouldn't be cause for alarm."

Joining her in the any-reading-is-good camp is Deborah Wooten, a board member of the Children's Literature Assembly. Children learn how language and writing work, even when reading books dismissed by some as piffle, says Wooten. Wooten is also concerned with other issues. "There is decreased readership among children and young adults because of digital distractions." To prove her point, she cites a recent study that showed teenagers spend roughly four hours a night in front of a television or computer.

But plenty of parents put themselves in the opposite camp. Don Croft, a parent of a six-year-old boy, recently wrote in an online review of a book that he saw his child reading, that he had to stop after every other sentence and talk about how his child should not follow the examples he read about in this particular book. "I had to point out that we don't call people stupid, we don't judge others by the fact that you can beat them up, and you don't deal with being afraid by calling everyone names and hitting them."

Librarian, Mike Howard, disagrees. "The books that we believe to be poor quality may introduce students to reading. After they are hooked with these books, it is our job as educators and parents to slowly begin introducing new books to these students. As long as the students are able to develop the skill of visualising what they are reading, they are learning." Another point of view is that 'low quality literature' can give the opportunity to teach a child to be a critical thinker and that parents can use the child's interest as a springboard for recommendations for other, more substantive literature. Author, Judy Blume, who has had her books banned by various organisations, feels that parents worry too much about their children's reading material. "If a book is really unsuitable, the children themselves will simply self-censor themselves." Although Blume has sold over 80 million of her books worldwide, she still finds people critical of what she has written. "A lot of people want to control everything in their children's lives, or everything in other people's children's lives."

Reading for pleasure is an activity that has real consequences in the life of a child. There is a growing body of evidence that emphasises the importance of reading for pleasure, for both educational purposes as well as personal development. The evidence strongly supports the argument that those who read more are better readers and do significantly better at school. Children who read very little do not have the benefits that come with reading, and studies show that when struggling readers are not motivated to read, their opportunities to gain knowledge decrease significantly. Whether any type of reading can be considered beneficial is moot and it probably lies with parents and teachers to lay down their own beliefs in guiding children's reading patterns.

Glossary:
Piffle – nonsense or rubbish

Questions 14–21

• Some books provide unsuitable role models.
• Some adults are motivated to interfere in all aspects of children's lives.
• Different book types can teach children about different cultures.
• Reading books has been affected by modern media usage.
• Too many children don't have parental role models who read.
• Different types of children's literature are a good starting point for children to learn how stories work.
• Which TWO research activities were carried out by Scott's expedition team? A collecting samples of sea life B monitoring penguin behaviour C studying the effects of cold on the human body D keeping a record of Antarctic weather patterns E drawing pictures of plants and animals

Questions 22–25

• Which TWO statements are true about the conservation workers on Ross Island? A They lived in Scott's huts while carrying out the work. B They were in Antarctica for months at a time. C They had previously worked together in New Zealand. D They restored the contents as well as the buildings themselves. E They had no access to showers at all.

Questions 26–26

• What is the writer’s purpose in this passage?

The Spanish influenza pandemic of 1918 to 1919, which caused around 50 million deaths worldwide, remains an ominous warning to public health.

Paragraph A
Before and after 1918, most influenza pandemics developed in Asia and spread from there to the rest of the world more or less simultaneously. Historical data are inadequate to identify the geographic source of the 1918 virus. The name 'Spanish' influenza merely reflects that Spain, which was neutral in World War 1, did not censor their news agencies from publicising the severity of the pandemic in the country, and this made it seem to other countries that the disease was worse there.

Paragraph B
The pandemic did not occur evenly over 1918 and 1919, but came in three severe waves. The first, or so‑called spring wave, began in March 1918 and spread unevenly through the United States, Europe, and possibly Asia over the next six months. Illness rates were high, but death rates in most locales were not appreciably above normal. A second or autumn wave spread globally from September to November 1918, was highly fatal and, in many nations, a third wave occurred in early 1919. Clinical similarities led contemporary observers to conclude initially that they were observing the same disease in the successive waves. The differences between the waves seemed to be primarily in the much higher frequency of complicated, severe, and fatal cases in the last two waves. These three extensive pandemic waves of influenza within one year, occurring in rapid succession, with only the briefest of quieter intervals between them, were unprecedented.

Paragraph C
All of these deaths caused a severe disruption in the US economy. Claims against life insurance policies skyrocketed, with one insurance company reporting a 745 per cent rise in the number of claims made. Small businesses, many of which had been unable to operate during the pandemic, went bankrupt. The world economy as a whole was not significantly affected and the 1920s actually heralded a growth boom, until the 1929 Wall Street Crash. The US had a great influence on world economics and, although over 650,000 people died in the US, it could have been a lot worse. Throughout history, influenza viruses have mutated and caused pandemics or global epidemics. In 1890, an especially virulent influenza pandemic struck, killing many Americans. Those who survived that pandemic and lived to experience the 1918 pandemic tended to be less susceptible to the disease and so a lot more Americans lived than would have otherwise been the case.

Paragraph D
In the years following 1919, people seemed eager to forget the pandemic. Given its devastating impact, the reasons for this forgetfulness are puzzling. It is possible, however, that the pandemic's close association with World War I may have caused this short memory. While more people died from the pandemic than from World War I, the war had lasted longer than the pandemic and caused greater and more immediate changes in American society. Influenza hit areas quickly and often, but it disappeared within a few weeks of its arrival. Many people did not have time to fully realise just how great the danger was.

Paragraph E
The 1918 Spanish Influenza pandemic had some curious features. Firstly, overall, nearly half of the influenza-related deaths in the 1918 pandemic were in young adults of 20 to 40 years of age, a phenomenon unique to that pandemic year. The 1918 pandemic is also unique among influenza pandemics in that the absolute risk of influenza death was higher in those under 65 years of age than in those over 65. Influenza is usually more dangerous for the very young and the old, as their immune systems are weaker. Secondly, the pandemic was particularly widespread during the summer and autumn, whilst usually influenza is more widespread in the colder winter months. Finally, in 1918, three separate recurrences of influenza followed each other with unusual rapidity, resulting in three explosive pandemic waves within a year's time.

Paragraph F
The 1918 Spanish Flu pandemic was particularly fatal with more than twice the fatalities of World War I. Scientists today have isolated the virus and researched why it was so particularly lethal. The theory is that it often killed through an over-stimulation of people's immune systems, a process known as a cytokine storm. This is when there is an overproduction of immune cells and associated compounds to fight an infection. As the infection was influenza, the cells congregated in the lungs, and their large numbers led to inflammation followed by secondary bacterial pneumonia. This secondary disease was the cause of the many deaths, particularly in healthy young adults, because of their robust immune systems that could produce so many cytokines. Ironically, the health of the young adults made them the most affected.

Paragraph G
In its disease course, the 1918 pandemic was different in degree, but not in kind, from previous and subsequent pandemics. Despite the extraordinary number of global deaths, most influenza cases in 1918 were mild and essentially indistinguishable from influenza cases today. Although laboratory experiments on influenza genes from the 1918 virus suggest that the 1918 and 1918-like viruses seem to be as sensitive as other typical virus strains to today's anti-influenza drugs and even with today's prevention knowledge, the return of a pandemic virus similar to the virus of 1918 would likely kill over 100 million people worldwide, as the ease of travel in today's globalised society would aid the movement of the virus. However, although some characteristics of the 1918 pandemic appear unique, scientists have concluded that, since it happened once, similar or more favourable conditions could lead to another equally devastating pandemic.

Glossary:
A pandemic – a disease active over the whole world or over a country.
Epidemiology – the science of the origins, spread and control of a disease.

Questions 27–33

• Paragraph A
• Paragraph B
• Paragraph C
• Paragraph D
• Paragraph E
• Paragraph F
• Paragraph G

Questions 34–37

• Spanish influenza received its name because
• The attack of the virus in three waves
• The 1918 Spanish influenza pandemic
• A previous influenza pandemic

Questions 38–40

• Because Spanish influenza was often only active for a short time in some communities, its impact was not always appreciated.
• The 1918 Spanish influenza virus was first identified in Asia.
• The very young, sick and old were more at risk from the 1918 Spanish influenza pandemic.