IELTS Academic Reading Test 15

THE HISTORY OF MODERN AMERICAN DANCE

A The birth of modern American dance occurred in the first years of the twentieth century. And, perhaps unusually for academics, dance historians hold remarkably similar views when it comes to identifying the early 1900s, we can see that dancers quite deliberately moved away from previous approaches. This included rejecting both the formal moves of ballet dancing and the entertainment of vaudeville dancing. As a result, dancers began the new century with a fresh start. One important figure at this time was Loie Fuller, who performed largely with her arms, perhaps because she had limited dance training. Fuller emphasized visual effects rather than storytelling, and pioneered the use of artificial lighting to create shadows while dancing.

B Perhaps most influential in the early years was Isadora Duncan, who was well known in both America and Europe. Duncan refused to wear elaborate costumes, preferring to dance in plain dresses and bare feet. She is also notable for preferring music written by classical composers such as Chopin and Beethoven, rather than contemporary compositions. At a similar time, Ruth St Denis was bringing the dance training academy with her husband with the intention of passing on her approach and style to the next generation of American dancers.

C By the 1920s, the modern dance movement in America was well established. Audiences were enthusiastic and dancers were increasingly prepared to experiment with new ideas. Martha Graham was one of an important group who emerged in New York. Graham looked within herself to find her dance style, examining how her body moved as she breathed, but also observing the patterns made by her limbs when walking in order to find a new, naturalistic approach to dance. Doris Humphrey wanted her dance to reflect her personal experience of American life. She explored the concept of gravity, allowing her body to fall, only to recover at the last moment. Her book The Art of Making Dances, which detailed her approach to dance composition, was highly influential with later generations of dancers.

D By the 1930s, modern dance was becoming an accepted, respectable art form. Universities such as Bennington College included modern dance in their performing arts programmes for the first time. In the 1940s, German-born dancer Hanya Holm embraced the changing times by including modern dance in mainstream musicals on the Broadway stage. Among Holm's many other innovations was bringing her own humour to these performances – audiences adored it.

E Modern American dance has seldom stood still. Each new generation of dancers either developed the techniques of their teachers or rejected them outright. So by the 1950s the techniques of traditional European ballet dancing were again influential. This was certainly true of Erick Hawkins, who also incorporated Native American and Asian styles. Similarly, Merce Cunningham emphasized the leg actions and flexibility of the spine associated with ballet moves. Paul Taylor preferred his dance to reflect the experiences and interactions of ordinary people going about their everyday lives. Taylor's career was the subject of a documentary that provided valuable insights into this period of dance.

F The middle decades of the 20th century were certainly a dynamic time. Increasingly, the modern dance movement recognized and reflected the fact that America was a multi-racial, multi-cultural society. Katherine Dunham, an anthropology graduate, used movements from Pacific, African and Caribbean dance to create her unique style. Pearl Primus was another champion of African dance, which she passed on through her dance school in New York. After retirement she travelled widely to universities throughout America lecturing on ethnic dance, which became her main priority.

G Modern dance since the 1980s has become a mix of multiple forms of dance, as well as art more generally. For example, Mark Morris's hugely popular work The Hard Nut includes sensational costumes and a stage design inspired by the comics he'd always enjoyed. Another innovator has been Ohad Naharin, who studied in New York and has worked internationally. Naharin's 'Gaga' style is characterized by highly flexible limbs and backbones, while in rehearsal his dancers have no mirrors, feeling their movements from within themselves, a break from traditional dance custom. In many ways it was a fitting end to a 100-year period that had witnessed a transformation in dance. The emergence of the modern American dance was very much a 20th-century phenomenon. The style drew on influences from home and abroad and in turn, went on to influence global dance culture.

Questions 1–6

• Dance historians agree about the development of modern American dance.
• Dancers in the early 1900s tended to copy the styles of earlier dancers.
• Loie Fuller preferred to dance alone on stage.
• Isadora Duncan wore complicated clothing when dancing.
• Some dancers criticized Isadora Duncan for her choice of music.
• Ruth St Denis wished to educate others in her style of dancing.

Questions 7–10

• Developments in Modern American Dance 1920s–1940s Martha Graham based her dance on human actions such as breathing and ___ Doris Humphrey wrote an important about her ideas. Dance became a respectable subject to study at university. Hanya Holm introduced into dance and musicals. 1950s–1970s Eric Hawkins and Merce Cunningham reintroduced some ballet techniques. An influential outlined the working life of Paul Taylor.

Questions 11–13

Solving the problem of waste disposal

With the amount of rubbish being produced around the world increasing, Mark Rowe asks whether a new generation of incineration plants can help to solve the problem.

A For many years, burning rubbish has been portrayed as the lazy option when it comes to dealing with the problem of waste disposal, since it sends toxic fumes into the air and appears to support a consumerist, throwaway society. Norway, however, appears to be burning its way through a sizable chunk of Europe's municipal waste, using the heat created by this process to warm and power homes in many of its cities. Norway isn't alone: Germany, Sweden, Belgium and the Netherlands all burn significant quantities of rubbish, and across Europe there are 420 plants burning municipal waste. With Europe dumping 150 million tonnes of rubbish into landfill* every year, there would seem to be a limitless supply.

B Those who support burning waste say that a new generation of incinerators has made it a more attractive option. Filters and scrubbing mechanisms now capture harmful substances such as mercury, hydrochloric acid and heavy metals. According to Ted Michaels, president of the US-based Energy Recovery Centre, 'There has been constant evolution in combustion engineering and emissions-control technology, and the output from these facilities is now minuscule.' Above all, however, supporters say that incineration is the only way of preventing the long-term impacts of landfill. In ten years' time, says the World Bank, humans will be generating 2.2 billion tonnes of solid waste per year. Advocates see incineration as a practical way to deal swiftly with an immediate problem.

C Levels of waste generation vary hugely around the world. 'It's a problem for the developed nations,' says Joergen Fenhann, a senior scientist working with the UN Environment Programme in Denmark. 'The more you develop, the more you produce, buy and throw away. But the growth of incineration hasn't been universally welcomed. Lars Haltbrekken, chairman of Friends of the Earth in Norway, is concerned that incineration plants appear to generate demand for their services. 'The problem in Norway,' he explains, 'is that we have built too many waste-burning factories. So we've ended up importing waste from other countries. If you look at this in a very small perspective, it is, of course, better for the climate to burn rubbish from the UK rather than leave it in landfill there,' he continues. 'But in a broader perspective, it's a lazy way of getting rid of waste; you don't stimulate the goals of reducing, reusing and recycling.'

D Incineration is also at odds with EU policy, which promotes a 'recycling hierarchy': ideally, we simply produce less waste in the first place; failing that, we reuse objects more; the next step is recycling; only then should we consider incineration, while dumping in landfill is the last resort. Dealing with the problem of waste disposal involves tracing the whole process that took the material from its inception to landfill. We used to call this the 'cradle to grave' life cycle; now, the talk is of 'cradle to cradle' and an even more comprehensive concept known as 'zero waste'. 'The philosophy of cradle to cradle is about designing products that are actually good for the environment at the end of their life,' says Joan Marc Simon, European spokesman for the environmental movement GAIA. You design a bottle that contains no toxins, is fully recyclable and requires the minimum amount of energy to be produced.' As Simon points out, however, without the right mechanisms in place 'nothing guarantees that this bottle will end up being properly collected and treated in the appropriate recycling facility'.

E Tim Burns, policy manager at Keep Britain Tidy, says, 'In the UK alone, people waste £10 billion of food every year. You can argue about composting that, or not buying it in the first place — if you do that, then that's money the retailers don't get, so it's not always clear-cut. The implications of zero waste are that we're going to have to take a good long look at those well-stocked supermarket shelves, too. 'Supermarkets keep their shelves stocked even when demand isn't there, which means they have to pay to dispose of a lot of food, says Burns. 'But that cost is less to them than the cost in brand damage of having empty shelves.'

F Recent history and changes in trends in recycling suggest that we should be prepared for unexpected developments. 'If someone back in the 1980s had suggested what waste would be like now, they would be completely wrong, says Richard Fisher, a PhD researcher at Cranfield University. 'Consumerism has developed at a pace we never expected. Nobody would have said there would be so much electronic waste. But recycling has grown, too — ten years ago nobody would have predicted today's levels of recycling.' But he points out that the need to reduce waste is still a difficult message to sell to consumers. He suggests that what people are really concerned about is their loved ones and the future they face. 'Perhaps we can align the environmental message to these deep-seated values,' he says. 'We need to look at whether it's business that drives consumers or the other way around. You need government to play a leadership role, whereas countries such as the UK seem to be stepping away from the environment in pursuit of short-term economic goals.'

*landfill: a method of disposing of waste material by burying it

Questions 14–19

• Paragraph A
• Paragraph B
• Paragraph C
• Paragraph D
• Paragraph E
• Paragraph F

Questions 20–23

• Ted Michaels
• Joergen Fenhann
• Joan Marc Simon
• Tim Burns

Questions 24–26

• What recent history tells us about recycling Richard Fisher, a researcher from Cranfield University, points out that the pace of consumerism has increased more quickly than was predicted in the 1980s. There has, for example, been unexpected growth in waste from ___ products. He suggests that the need to protect the environment should be linked to basic values, and adds that it might be better if consumers had more influence over and more direction was provided by .

What Are the 1,000 Foods to Eat Before You Die?

Written by a former New York Times restaurant critic, this tome will keep your appetite satisfied for a lifetime.

When was the last time you sat down to a meal of harnam meshwi, a.k.a. grilled pigeon, which is most likely found on a menu in Egypt? Or traveled to Oslo, Norway, for a breakfast of freshly caught shrimp? Chances are probably never. However, thanks to former New York Times restaurant critic, Smithsonian contribution and author Mimi Sheraton's latest book, 1,000 Foods to Eat Before You Die, your foodie life is about to get a whole lot more interesting.

Inspired by Patricia Schultz's best-selling 1,000 Places to See Before You Die (also published by Workman Publishing), Sheraton has rounded up 1,000 must-try dishes, restaurants, markets, cultural feasts, and even some relatively universal foods (such as bananas, olive oil, and whipped cream) that transcend regional categorization. Curated from cuisines around the globe, Sheraton has put them together in one large volume, along with details on historic and cultural context, tips on how to prepare or where to try a particular dish, and even several dozen recipes. It's a project that's been 10 years in the making—one that's as much a wonderful display of Sheraton's vast food knowledge (she's been writing about food for 60 years) as it is an ode to the world's sheer culinary diversity.

The ultimate gift for the food lover. In the same way that 1,000 Places to See Before You Die reinvented the travel book, 1,000 Foods to Eat Before You Die is a joyous, informative, dazzling, mouthwatering life list of the world's best food.

The book is organized not by country or type of food, but rather by the experience of eating itself. Sections guide the reader through "Street Food & Snacks," "Comfort Food," and "Sweets & Treats," among others. This structure encourages serendipitous discovery, where a reader looking for a classic French pastry might stumble upon a traditional Indonesian dessert and become captivated. Sheraton's entries are more than just lists; they are miniature stories. She explains why a specific cheese from a remote village in Greece is worth seeking out, or how a particular noodle dish embodies the history of trade routes in Southeast Asia. This narrative approach transforms the book from a mere checklist into a compelling read about culture, history, and human connection through food.

Of course, a list of 1,000 items is bound to include some controversies. Some critics question the inclusion of ubiquitous items like the banana, arguing that it diminishes the exclusivity of the list. Others have noted a possible bias towards European and North American cuisines, though Sheraton defends her selections by pointing to the extensive research and personal travels that informed her choices. She emphasizes that the book is a personal, albeit expert, guide rather than a definitive, objective ranking. The goal, she states, is to inspire curiosity and appreciation, not to end debate.

Ultimately, 1,000 Foods to Eat Before You Die serves as a passport to gastronomic adventure. It challenges the reader to look beyond their culinary comfort zone, whether that means seeking out a rare ingredient, attempting a complex recipe at home, or simply ordering something unfamiliar at a local restaurant. For Sheraton, the book is a culmination of a lifetime's passion for food, an invitation to savor the incredible diversity of flavors the world has to offer, one unforgettable bite at a time.

Questions 27–31

• Mimi Sheraton is currently working as a restaurant critic for the New York Times.
• The book 1,000 Foods to Eat Before You Die was directly inspired by a popular travel guide.
• Sheraton's book includes recipes for every one of the 1,000 foods mentioned.
• The book is organized according to the geographic origin of the foods.
• Sheraton has been a food writer for six decades.

Questions 32–35

• The main purpose of the first paragraph is to
• According to the passage, the book includes all of the following EXCEPT
• How is the book's structure described?
• What is the author's stated goal for the book?

Questions 36–40

• Mimi Sheraton's book has been described as a ___ for anyone who loves food. It is noted for its narrative approach, where each entry is like a mini , explaining the cultural significance of a dish. While the book has faced some , particularly over the inclusion of common items and a potential regional bias, Sheraton clarifies that the selections are based on her own and expert opinion. The ultimate aim of the book is to encourage readers to expand their and embark on a gastronomic adventure.